1.) Direct Instruction

Direct instruction is a highly structured model used most effectively when teaching basic skills such as reading and mathematics when the tasks to be learned can be broken into small discreet pieces. This model is also effective when teaching cognitive objectives related to recall and recognition of facts and data. Psychomotors skills, such as holding a pencil, playing the violin, and throwing a baseball are also effectively taught through this model. (Gunter et.al. 1995)

Syntax (Steps in Model)
1.) Review previously learned material.
2.) States objectives for the lesson.
3.) Present new material.
4.) Guide practice with corrective feedback.
5.) Assign independent practice with corrective feedback.
6.) Review periodically with corrective feedback if necessary.

2.) Concept Attainment

By teaching the thinking skill of categorizing, students comprehend and analyzes the meaning of a particular concept. Through a series of positive and negative examples, students to define the concept and determine its essential attributes. The Concept Attainment model is particularily effective in meeting the objectives related to comprehension, comparison, discrimination, and recall.

Syntax (Steps 1-3 are to be completed by the teacher prior to instruction.)
1.) Select and define a concept.
2.) Select the attributes.
3.) Develop positive and negative examples.
4.) Introduce the process to the students.
5.) Present the examples and list the attributes.
6.) Develope a concept definition
7.) Give additional examples.
8.) Discuss the process with the class.
9.) Evaluate.

Theory into Practice: Concept Attainment: Ms. Johnson's 9th grade civics class is studying urban centers. Ms. Johnson selects several different cities and lists the attributes of each on the board (population, crime rate, income rates, land area, etc...). The list is divided into two sections; NEGATIVE and POSITIVE. The POSITIVE column is a list of those cities with the attribute in which Ms. Johnson is interested. The NEGATIVE column is a list of those cities which do not display that attribute. Through deductive reasoning, the students are to determine why each city is in a particular column; eventually coming to a realization of the attribute selected by the teacher.

3.) Concept Development

The concept development model teaches students to group data based on perceived similarities and then to form categories and labels for that data, effectively producing a conceptual system. In the process, students learn to think about their own thinking and to understand how concepts originate. This model is effective with objectives related to contrasting, applying, categorizing, and analyzing data.

Syntax
1.) List as many items as possible.
2.) Group the items.
3.) Label the items by defining the reasons for grouping.
4.) Regroup or subsume individual items or whole groups under other groups.
5.) Synthesize the information by summarizing the data and forming generalizations.
6.) Evaluate the students' progress by assessing their ability to generate a wide variety of items and to group those items flexibly.

4.) Synectics

Synectics uses group interaction to stimulate creative thought through metaphorical analogies. Far from being a lonely, isolated process, creative thinking and expression become group activities in which each individual can participate. The Synectics model is particularly effective for those objectives related to exploration, comparison, identification, and insight.

Syntax
1.) Describe the topic.
2.) Create direct analogies.
3.) Identify compressed conflicts.
4.) Create a new direct analogy.
5.) Reexamine the original topic.
6.) Evaluate

Theory into Practice: Synectics: At the beginning of a lesson, Mr. Smith asks his 11th grade students to describe interactions in nature. The students are to discuss the topic, then write two paragraphs about their reflections. When the students have finished, Mr. Smith and the students list those words students have used to describe the topic on the board. The students then are to create direct analogies between the list on the board and words from a seemingly unrelated category - for example, machines. In the third phase, students are asked to view reality from the perspective of the metaphorical object they just selected. After a short period students are asked how it feels to be this object. The students are then asked to list these "feeling words". After listing "feeling words", Mr. smith directs his his students to discover compressed conflicts. That is, students are asked to examine the list they have just constructed and place together words that seem to fight eachother, such as "ordered" and "chaotic". Students are asked to create a new direct analogy using the new word pairs. Mr. smith and the class then reexamine the process and the students create a new product from the ideas generated. Finally, Mr. Smith discusses the experience with the students; the entire class evaluating and improving upon the process.

5.) Suchman Inquiry

In the inquiry model, learners take a puzzling situation and follow a scientific process that leads to a hypothesis. The emphasis here is on the need for careful, logical procedures in problem solving, on the tentative nature of knowledge, and on the need for group endeavor in solving problems. Learners are encouraged to seek more than one answer to a question. The inquiry model is effective in meeting the objectives related to problems solving, analysis, hypothesizing, and evaluation. Group process, cooperation, are also emphasized in this model.

Syntax
1.) Select all problems and conduct research.
2.) Introduced the process and present the problem
3.) Gather data.
4.) Develop a theory and verify.
5.) State the rules and explain the theory.
6.) Analyze of the process.
7.) Evaluate.

6.) Classroom Discussion

Based on the Great Books approach, the discussion model guides the planning and selection of questions to be used and classroom discussions. Both students and teachers learn to identify different levels and types of questions. This model also helps the teacher direct the process of classroom interactions for effective discussions. It is effective with cognitive objectives ranging from knowledge acquisition to synthesis and evaluation and with affective objectives related to receiving and responding to learning. Ask students a general question, then several follow-up questions. Return to the initial question. How has their understanding improved?

Syntax
1.) Read the material and prepare the questions.
2.) Plan and cluster the questions.
3.) Introduce the model to the students.
4.) Conduct the discussion.
5.) Review the process and summarized the students' observations.
6.) (Optional) Evaluate the discussion.

7.) Vocabulary Acquisition

This model presents the exciting possibility of teaching vocabulary through the history of language and word derivation rather than by memorizing lists.

Syntax
1.) Pre test knowledge of words critical to content.
2.) Elaborate upon and discuss invented spellings and hypothesized meanings.
3.) Explore word families.
4.) Read and study.
5.) Evaluate and posttest.

8.) Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning models, which include Teams-Games-Tournament (TGT), Student-Teams-Academic-Division, Jigsaw, and Think-Pair-Share describe ways in which the teacher can encourage students to work with and help other students in the classroom. The use of these models helps create a positive environment in the classroom and meet affective objectives related to cooperation and understanding. In addition, these models are effective in teaching cognitive and psychomotor objectives.

Syntax :TGT:
1.) Presented a new concept.
2.) Form heterogeneously grouped study teams and practice.
3.) Participate in academic competition.
4.) Recognize winning teams.

Syntax : STAD:
1.) Present a new concept.
2.) Form teams for study and practice.
3.) Test students on newly learned materials.
4.) Recognize winning teams.

Syntax : Jigsaw II:
1.) Introduce Jigsaw.
2.) Assign heterogeneously grouped students to study teams.
3.) Assemble expert groups.
4.) Experts teach their study teams.
5.) Evaluate and provide team recognition.

Syntax : Think-Pair-Share:
1.) Teacher poses a question.
2.) Students think individually.
3.) Each student discusses his or her answer with another student.
4.) Students share their answer with the whole class.

9.) Memories Model

Memory models, which include a Link, Loci, Memory through Motion, and Names and Faces, provide techniques to which both teachers and students can improve their memory skills. Good memory can be developed and that all learners should have access to this process.

Syntax : Link :
1.) Select the items.
2.) Organize the material.
3.) Prepare the associations.
4.) Explain the process and present the associations to the class.
5.) Practice developing associations.
6.) Evaluate.

Syntax : Loci :
1.) Select appropriate material.
2.) Outline the material to be recalled.
3.) Indentify the location to serve as a reference.
4.) Relate the items to the places within the location.
5.) Practice.
6.) Evaluate.

Syntax : Memory Through Motion :
1.) Select a passage.
2.) Prepare a chart.
3.) Select the key words and motions.
4.) Introduce the material.
5.) Present the motions to the class.
6.) Have groups complete the motions for the remainder of the class.
7.) Have groups present the motions.
8.) Practice
9.) Evaluate

Syntax : Names and Faces Memory Model :
1.) Select pictures of interesting faces.
2.) Assign a picture to each student.
3.) Students introduce their picture faces.
4.) students select distinctive features.
5.) Students associate the name with the feature.
6.) Review the names and practice.
7.) Evaluate

10.) Conflict Resolution

Two models of conflict resolution help students understand their own feelings as they learn to explore the feelings of others in real-life situations as well as in literature. These two models are particularly effective in meeting a effected objectives related to feelings and attitudes and it resolving conflicts in the classroom.

Syntax : Exploration of Feelings Model :
1.) List all the facts pertinent to the conflict.
2.) Make and support inferences about how the persons involved were feeling and why.
3.) Describe similar experiences.
4.) Describe feelings at the time and reasons for those feelings.
5.) Compare student's feelings with the feelings of the people studied (if appropriate).
6.) Draw conclusions, form generalizations, and support.
7.) Evaluate

Syntax : Resolution of Conflict Model :
1.) List all the facts pertinent to the conflict.
2.) Make and support inferences about how the persons involved were feeling and why.
3.) Propose and defend resolutions.
4.) Decide which resolution is best and give reasons.
5.) Describe similar experiences the students may have had.
6.) Describe the feelings of those involved.
7.) Evaluate their handling of the conflict.
8.) Explore alternatives.
9.) Draw conclusions.
10.) Evaluate

Models and Syntax taken from: M.A. Gunter, T.H. Estes, and J. Schwab, Instruction: A Models Approach. Allyn and Bacon, Boston.